Small firms dominate the economies of developing countries. This phenomenon occurs in all sectors, but it is particularly salient in the retail sector. For example, in Mexico, there is one mom-and-pop shop for every 100 inhabitants, while in the United States, there is one mom-and-pop shop for every 2,200 inhabitants. These stores are not just … Read more
Big tech companies across the world have started to offer lending services in recent years, either directly or in partnership with financial institutions. In China, Alibaba, Baidu, and Tencent all offer credit services through their subsidiaries, while in the United States, Apple, Amazon, and Google also offer credit services. Aided by advantages in information, distribution, … Read more
Bank branch density, defined as the number of bank branches per $1 billion in deposits, has declined significantly over the past decade. While total bank deposits almost doubled between 2016 and 2022, the number of bank branches declined by approximately 15 percent. The decline in branch density, which was facilitated by investment in technology and … Read more
Credit markets are often affected by market failures, which makes them prone to government interventions. While there are many ways in which governments can intervene in financial markets, a common method is through state-owned banks. These financial intermediaries allow governments to lend directly to households and firms and are commonly found across the world. Development … Read more
Having a financial account is essential for adults to save, borrow, make payments, and manage unexpected expenses. However, financial products come with risks, especially for those with limited financial knowledge or living in countries with poor consumer protection systems. Inexperienced account owners are vulnerable to fraud, over-indebtedness, and misunderstandings about account terms and fee structures. While increasing … Read more
The relationship between rising inflation and economic growth is a topic of ongoing debate in macroeconomics. According to the classical “neutrality of money” view, increases in inflation have little effect on real gross domestic product (GDP), as inflation increases both prices and wages similarly and merely alters the units of measurement. A related viewpoint is … Read more
West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) countries have seen increased financial account ownership since 2014, with mobile money accounts driving adoption and usage. On average, 41% of adults in the WAEMU have an account with a bank or similar institution or with a mobile money service. Senegal has the highest account ownership rate at … Read more
Sukuk are tradable securities. They are listed on major stock exchanges around the world and settle through the largest international securities clearing systems. They are, in other words, capital market instruments in the same way as stocks and bonds. Of course, they are structured to conform to specific Islamic principles. However, the fact that they … Read more
In October 2020, Shenzhen’s Luohu district announced the distribution of 10 million digital yuan—200 digital yuan (USD 30) to about 50,000 people. Lucky winners could spend their money at designated shops in Luohu between October 12 and 18, 2020. A similar announcement happened in Shenzhen, where registered citizens would receive their money on January 11, 2021, … Read more
In Part I of this post, we discussed “expiring” digital cash as a possible type of programmable money, which a central bank (in coordination with government) could issue and distribute to people during severe recessions or events like pandemics or calamities, when higher uncertainty makes people spend less. We argued that the instrument could be a most … Read more